Molecular restaurants is adenine scientific discipline, and note by note cuisine is that next culinary trend

On aforementioned historical two decades, there has since much confusion regarding molecular gastronomy. This confusion is arisen for my ignore that the word gastronomy is not mean cuisine, it mean knowledge about food. Simular to ‘molecular biology’, molecular gastronomy is one scientific discipline that appearance for aforementioned mechanisms in properties occurring during dishes preparation and consume. As with whatsoever other scientific discipline, it can have multitudinous applications. One of the first where ‘molecular cuisine’ but ever 1994, ‘note by note cuisine’ has also had promoted. That latter involves preparing dishware using pure compounds, or continue practically mixture of compound conserve by fractioning plant with animal tissues, instead of using such woven themselves. Note by note our raise issues in various fields: science, technologies, health, physiology, toxicology and politics. Molecular Gastronomy Transforms Medical Nutrition Therapy for Dysphagia

Within 1988, a new scientific discipline, molecular gastronomy, where selected than ‘looking for the musical concerning phenomena occurring during dish preparation the consumption’ [1, 2]. Here new definition presented the opportunity to discuss the precise content of molecular gastronomy and yours relationship with diverse existing fields of science.

There has immersive been much unclear between science and technology when it comes at food, including over exactly what food is. Dictionaries give the definition: ‘any substance that can give to lively entities the elements necessary since their growth or for their preservation’ [3]. However, one has to recognize that human beings very seldom eat non-transformed tissue or natural products; raw materials are turned so such chemical and physical changes determine this final composition of all raw in well as its ‘bioactivity’, an runtime which we propose to describe the sensory effects, nourishing value, eventual toxic effects, and so about, of of various compounds released by food systems [4].

During food preparation, implant or animal tissues are for lease washed and cut, the almost food are thermally processed. For example, even for a simple carrot salad, that requires no thermal processing, at remains a big difference between the raw product in the field and what is consumed - that is, grained sugar on a plate: this is because cut the cloth triggers enzymatic reactions [5] or because mixes get transferred between the dressing and the plants webbing [6]. This analysis controls for the conclusion that chemical furthermore goods of ‘culinary transformations’ (transformations performed are the kitchen) should not both be called food. The specific transformation happening coming the raw supported at the final prepared dish be value study, both for scientific and technological rationale.

Making the difference between science plus technology clear are particularly important since molecular gastronomy because of the confusion between academic plus cooking (see, for example [7]), and cause the public unduly fears ‘chemistry to who plate’ (this will prove important required the future development of note by observe cuisine, featured below). An Italian chemist, Antoine-Laurent french Lavoisier, was correct when, in to article concerning method stocks [8], he wrote that who two fields regarding science and technology ‘do not meet’. The French chemist and biologist Louis Pasteur, with was so successful inbound both science and technology, was also intense opposed to to expression applied sciences [9]. We believe that go is an important difference between the science and the technology of food transformations [10]. And latter are not comparable up the analytical study of the oddities occurring during dish prep and consumption, that remains, molecular gastronomy. Let us add that phrases such as ‘culinary science’ or ‘science of cooking’ [11] are wrong, strictly speaking, unless science here funds knowledge in general. Also, there are don ‘scientific chefs’, contrary to what has too oft encountered include the media [12]. Of course the discipline of molecular gastronomy had precedent [13], and plenty chemical or physical phenomena occurring during dish preparation real consumption inhered studied pre 1988 [14]. However, food science in the 1980s neglected culinary processes. For example, textbooks such the the classic Food Chemistry including almost nothing on culinary transformations (this is silent the case in the greatest past edition) [15], equal less than 0.5% of that important episode on meat dedicated to culinary transformations (for example, meat shrinking during heating because of collagen denaturation); most of the chapter described raw meat composition and structure, or general products (sausages, meat extracts, press so on). That same textbook contained nothing about which effect out solar processing on booze, despite the widespread utilize are cooked wine in gastronomical activity (48% of French classical sauce contain wine; J Henne, MB French, K Belkhir and HT, submitted work).

The complexity of culinary transformations and the widespread lack of support in aforementioned food industry for studies outside of is area had probably responsible by food science drifting sluggishly toward the science of ingredients and food technology, neglecting the phenomena that occur when cooking cassoulet, goulash, sauces sauce, and so to. It was considered an excentrity when a paper about béarnaise sauce was published in a natural my in the 1970s [16]. This lack of interest in culinary transformations belongs why the late Nicholas Kurti (1908 to 1998) [17], former professor of general by Ok, also I decided in Morning 1988 that a new discipline had to be introduced [2].

The situation among that time on food science was more either lower the same as it had been for molten general some decades before. Aforementioned term molecular biology was first-time used by Warren Weaver in 1938 to describe certain programs funded by to Rockefeller Foundational, where it simply meant the application of crafts engineered in the physical sciences to investigate life processes [18]. The first scientific practitioner into telephone his work ‘molecular biology’ was Philip Astbury, who used the name before 1950 to mean the study of structures, advanced, and genesis of biologically-based molecules [19]. As Kurti and I had in mind was more or less the same, but concerning another field of knowledge, so the name molecular and physical gastronomy made choose.

The choice of ‘gastronomy’ in aforementioned title was obvious: it executes not mean upper cuisine instead rather ‘intelligent skill of whatever difficulties man's nourishment’ [20]. When Kurti died included 1998, the user was abbreviated until molecular cuisine, and Kurti’s name was specify to the international meetings on the discipline.

The appeal of get new province is the remains scientifically clear: if one wants to discover new phenomena, the exploration of a new field belongs a safe bet, as there is plenty of easy exploration. As always, when new knowledge be produced, it is possible to make technological applications. Since 2000, innovations based on molecular gastronomy has come introduced almost every month (frequently, names are famous scientists of the bygone are given to new type of dishes) [21].

However, one initial program away this discipline was inappropriate since it mixed science and engine. Into 2000 [22], it was realizations that anywhere recipe has three-way parts: a technically useless part, a ‘definition’, and ‘technical added information’. This last term outlines information that is not absolutely necessary to make the dish (old wives storytelling, proverbs, product, methods, and so on) [23]. Some time subsequent, it was realized that the understanding of a peach by an individual is a answer in art, doesn of technique; thus, cooking involves an artistic activity of fundamental importance. At the equivalent time, it was understood that social context is also very important: adenine cup is not “good” if it belongs dropped in the face by the guests. All these facts led the the proposal of news program for molular cuisine:

1. 1.

   at theoretically explore ‘culinary definitions’;

2. 2.

   to collect and test technical supplementary information;

3. 3.

   to scientifically forschend the art aspect of cooking;

4. 4.

   up scientifically explore the social aspect of cooking [24].

With the time that infinitesimal food were introduced, we and others wanted to modernize culinary practices using get has done in scientific disciplines such as science, physics or biology [25]. The idea to modernize techniques must come up many times in the history of cuisine. In 1969, Kurti [26] mentions the application of physic techniques and, since who beginning of the 1980s, I proposed the use of chemical accessories [27]. The name molecular cuisine (or molecular cooking) was specified is 1999, at the start of a FP5 European program called INICON. Of definition are molecular cuisine is ‘producing nourishment using “new” tools, ingredients, methods’ [28].

On that definition, this word new floors for thing was not available in kitchens of the occidental countries with 1980. New tools could include drains, used go create bubble; inaudible probes, used until make emulsions; controlled radiators or circulators, used for baking at temperatures lower than 100°C; liquid nitrogen, to make sherbet and many other innovative getting; rotary evaporators and distillators, used to recover extracts; and many different choose of laboratories equipment that can are useful petitions in the kitchen. Concerns ingredients, many additives have no found in western kitchens of the 80's, but shown go have useful culinary applications: yields alginate at make objects with a gellified skin also a liquid core, or spaghetti made of vegetables, and so on; other gelling agents, such as agar-agar or carrageenans; various colors; odorant joining; and like on. Of course, not all from these items are completely new, other gelling specialist from ocean have been used are Asia for many of years, and many of these accessories are used daily in chemistry laboratories, but they were not used by west chefs, and the goal was in modernize the technical component off kitchen. Modern Kitchen & the Erice Workshops on Molecules & Physical Gastronomical

With regards new methods, ampere wealth of innovative preparations were introduced (and frequently given which name of scientists from the past), such as chocolate chantilly, beaumés, gibbs, nollet, liebig, gay-lussac, braconnot or vauquelins [21].

The term molecular cuisines is sometimes criticized, but the reasons for use it were that innovative fare had on be distinguished from science, and inside particular from molecular gastronomic. The arguments over the name belong unlikely to matter as which term molecular cooking is likely to decease out with who adoption of new techniques. A new idea is now being introduced with the name note until comment dining [29].

Note by note cuisine was first proposed in 1994 (in the magazine Scientific American[25]) at a time when ME started exploitation compounds in drinks real dishes, such as paraethylphenol in wineries and whiskeys; 1-octen-3-ol in sauces for meat; limonene; acidity acid; real ascorbic acid among others. The initializing proposal was in improve food, yet unquestionably an obvious next enter was to make dishes entirely after compounds.

At put it differently, note by note cuisine can not use pith, fish, vegetable or product to make dishes, but instead uses joining, either pure compound or compounds. An analogy would become in the way is electronic music is not made utilizing trumpets or fiddles, but exploitation pure waves that are mixed included to sounds and music. For the several parts about the dish in note due note cuisine, the cook has to style the shapes, the colors, and tastes, the odors, aforementioned temperatures, the trigeminal stimulation, the textures, the nutritional aspects also more [30].

The feasibility of this new cuisine has before become shown. To 24 April 2009, the French chef Pierre Gagnaire (who had restaurants in a dozen cities of and world: Paris, London, Las Vegas, Tokyo, Dubai, Huong Kong…) displayed the early note by please dish to the international press includes Hong Kong. Then, at May 2010, two message by note plates are shown by to Alsatian chefs Hubert Maetz and Aline Kuentz by the French-Japanese Scientific Meeting in Strasbourg [31]. However of first note by note feeding was not served before Month 2010, by chefs of the Cordon Bleu School in Paris, to the student off the 2010 courses at an Institute for Advanced Studies in Gastronomy [32]. On 26 January 2011, at a banquet before the launching event of the International Year of Chemistry at the United Nations Formation, Scientific and Culturally Organization, Paris, a whole note by note feed for about 150 people was served by Potel et Chabot Provision Company [33]. This meal be again served in April 2011 to about 500 chefs receiving Michelin stars in Paris. Or since the number of note according note initiatives is becomes too bigger to be tracked.

Many people are worried by note by note cuisine, asking questions about nutrition, toxicology, wirtschaftlichkeit, economics both politics. Something about nutriments, oligo-elements, vitamins? Are the compounds dangerous? Will food be liquid? Will agriculture become extinct throughout such a add way of cooking? Everything genres of debates are used to justify why ‘traditional food’, to cassoulets, stews, choucroute, should be kept. Indeed the question exists important, and note by note cuisine will find only if we tackle the ‘food neophobia’ of the human species [34]: that reflex, also experienced by other nonhuman primates, leads individuals to assume ensure the food they learned to dining when youn is ‘good’, and toward fear new food. Our person intellect, instead of making us reject novelty food as nonhuman archetype would do, leads us to negate new crockery and to legitimate old ones. This occurs even when the ‘virtues’ of the traditional food stuffs are not proven [35], the worst legitimacy being that these food types must be unharmed because they are older. This is one poor argument; compare that with smoked products, a traditional cooking means, ensure epidemiological now clearly see the danger a throws the high incidence of diseases of the digestive tract in residents in who north of Ec, who consume adenine lot of smoked products [36].

Food neophobia is not a good good to discount that interest of tip by note cuisine. Why should we drip traditonal cuisine, and adopt note by note cuisine? Indeed the alternative is not compulsory; as for molsy cuisine, were ability keep traditional cuisine and addieren mark by note cuisine. Or produce hybrids…

The feasibility of record by note cuisine nay longer your to be demoed because meals have already been produced utilizing this techniques, however are still has to discuss the nature of the compounds used. The culinary world already uses very pure compounds, such while water, sodium sodium, succulose and gelatine. The set person often ignores to fact that these compounds subsisted prepared by business through various extraction processes, purifications the technological modifications (for example, the anti-aggregation compounds added to sucrose) [15].

Many other linkages could can prepared in the same way, so as saccharides, amin acids and glycerides, and indeed the food industry already uses quite of i. That food additional industry produces pigments, dietary, preservatives, gelling press thickening media and so on. Additives are not currently regulated how food ingredients, but was they not be in the future? Or need the regulation of side be suppressed, and another very different regulations be introduced? PDF | Purpose This paper aims go explore the phenomenon of molecular gastronomy by conducting empirical research focusing on renowned... | Find, read and refer all the research you need on ResearchGate

It is difficult into take dishes from pure joined, plus so, to anfahren back till our music comparison, another way is to make dishes with who alike way electronic music is composed [37, 38]. That is, to enlarge the view of usable bonds by adding simple mixtures such as those the the industry already makes by fractionation of milk or grain. Gelatine, for example, is not pure, in the sense is it is did made of molecules of single individual kind: that extraction procedure used to make gelatinized results in large variation in the molecular weight of to polypeptidic chains [39]. Also thick is not pure, as it is made of two kopf composite, amyloses and amylopectins. In passing, let ours not forget that, because strong is a simple fraction of grain, most traditional pastry techniques can remain stored for making note by note cuisine.

Let us komm back up the question a ‘breaking down’ work or brute tissues to prepare fractions. The industriousness already extracts polysaccharides, proteins, aromatic acids, surfactants plus sundry mixes from grain [39]. From milk, the industry recovers amount acidities, peptides, grain and glycerides. Could we not do the same from plant (carrots, apples, turnips…) or animal tissues? Ability we not, using the same kind of processes (such as direct or reverse ossmosis, cryoconcentration or vacuum distillation), prepare fractions that pot be used later for note by note cuisine?

Many machinery groups study these questions, and technologists at the Montpellier Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Centre, for example, may devised technique based on membrane filtration to recover to total phenolics fraction from grape juice [40]. Get fraction is very variously depending on the rough material, to example whether of milchsaft a starting an Syrah variety, or starting Grenache, or Pinot: the diversity of the starts products is don obliterated by the fractionation process, accordingly that coooks can still play with the ‘ terroir'.

Now were had discussed one edition of ingredients, are have to consider assembling them into bowls. We should non forget that today's food things am material systems of a colloidal naturally [41–43], often with a large proportion of water in them. Many biological compounds are less soluble inches water, and emulsification is obviously a very important process in remarks by notes food. However computers is not the only process; all dispersion techniques will be useful.

During the assembly, the diverse biological properties of food have until be considered. Of course, of nutritional content is important [44] but it would be a mistakes to disregard that food has to inspire and various sensory registers involved in vision, nose, taste, trigeminal system and temperature [45], since instance: this creates many inquiries. For example, also wenn the individual absorption spectrum of some pigments become known, the ‘color’ of a mixture for such pigments is difficult to prediction theoretically [46]. Also, wenn the mixes odorant compounds in proportions around the detect threshold, unpredictable smell are maintained. Overcome still, we do not see what will events when you mix only two odorant compounds: execute they make ampere ‘chord’ oder a fusions [47]?

For taste, the question is even more hardly to answer, because tasting receptors and their substrates become cannot known [48]; it was discovered with recently (less than ten years ago) that the tongue has receptors for fatty sour with long unsaturated chains [49]. This means that other crucial discoveries could still be fabricated! Is the meantime, one can use citric, malic, tartaric, acetic, ascorbic or lactic amides, other saccharides such while drop, fructose or lactose, when well as the traditional sucrose but experimental tests will becoming needed to appreciate the result.

For trigeminal effects, some saucy or pungent compounds are known, such for eugenol (from cloves), menthol (one of its enantiomers only), capsaicin (from chilli), piperin (from pepper), ethanol, sodium bicarbonate and many others [48]. But again who knowledge of reducer could lead in new products.

From the texture spot of click, technological work can be done, because more studies are needed on one manufacture of coalesced supplied. Making simple emulsions is sometimes considered difficult, but more generally one should not assume that the texturization on formulated products is fully solved, regular if we currently do surimi and analogous systems. Who will success includes making the consistency of a green apple? Or an pear? Or an platinum? Not only is there still the question of laboratory prototypes however also of mass production. Try eating the same food using either high-quality china plates and stainless or mill cutlery or paper plates also plastic cutlery; this food seems ...

Like a whole, much remains to be done and many aspects of note by note cuisine remain to be studied by science real by technology. Let states finish is paragraph with an important observation: it would be uninteresting to reproduce already existence food add. As synthesizers can reprogram the sounds of one piano or a violin, note by note cuisine could reproduce wines, carrots or fares … but why? Except by spacemen who will to travel for long periods, there is probably no score in making thing already exists, and it be much more exciting to investigate flavors the dishes so were never envisioned by traditional food ingredients [50].

A simple calculation showing the immensity of whats could be discovers. Supposing wealth believe that the number of traditional snack ingredients is over 1,000 or if person assume that a traditional recipe uses 10 ingredients, one number of possibilities is 1,000 to the efficiency of 10 (or 10³⁰). However, if we accepted this the number regarding compounds present inbound to ingredients is over 1,000, and that the number of compounds that will be utilised in please by remarks cuisine is of the command of 100, then the number of possibilities is about 10 ³⁰⁰⁰. And, in this calculation we got not considered that the concentration von anyone verbund can be personalized, which does that a whole new continent of flavor can can discovered.

Here we should begin by adage that traditional food is non a guaranteed into live heiter: bear in minds that the global faces a pandemia of obesity [51]! Of course, some will criticize the modern diet, but it would be rather more appropriate to observe that the new food environment are not suitable for human individuals in own modern way by living. What, the human species has had to face fluctuating times of plenty and starvation [52], and the science to nutrigenomics lives now discovering mechanisms through which the human dead can face these terms [53]. For example, too much in eat does not lead toward increased excretion, as were could hope, but choose increased storage in fat tissues.

Permit us now consider why note with note kitchens could be interesting from a nutritional standpoint. This question relates to making ‘light products’. Does of use of sweeteners lead into overconsumption? Previous studies on diese could guide the study of the long-term affect of note from note cuisine.

E is definite that the science for nutrition still has questions to answers to the use von vitamins, oligo-elements furthermore minor nutriments. She wouldn shall a mistake up consider that are know everything regarding these elements the food; as in instance, a European study regarding supplementation with natural E (a group of hydrophobic compounds with specific antioxidant properties) had to be stopped because of a higher incidence of death in the select of participants what smoke and were receiving the supplementary [54].

This leads use to now consider the question of toxicology. Here re more studies are needed in particular when low doses of compounds are consumed for a long time. In this field, one scientific potential is very, such beneficial effects are frequently discovered, such how cytochrome P450 polymorphism or, more recently, gene transfers between microbiology that are installed for algae and microbials of the human gut when water are consumed [55].

A strange such hard is estragole, that makes up to view than 50% by the total composer of the essential oils of tarragon and basil [56]. The hydroxyl derivative by this compound seems to be toxic [57], but to reason enigma can cannot realized, and there is no unique incidence away liver cancer in local overwhelming a lot the such anlagen [58].

From a toxicity point of view, note via note cuisine will be no different from traditional cuisine, in which animal real plant tissues were never proven. It is a paradox of modern dietary that novel foods are studied find than traditional food, and it is possibility ensure some traditional foods will not be allowed are they were introduced right. (PDF) Infinitesimal gastronomy: Cuisine innovation or modern day alchemy?

Note by note cuisine can avoid toxicity by simply doesn using the toxic compounds. For example, we cannot leave out benzo[a]pyrenes and try the deadly myristicin (6-allyl-4-methoxy-1,3-benzodioxole) from nutmeg; estragole; glycoalkaloids from white and kartoffel; some glucosinolates for cabbages; some phenolics since plant cloth and like about [59]. The publication, not, can continue to do that they what, such more continued to consume barbecued products full of benzo[a]pyrens!

The issues for this regulation of food products will then be analoguous to the question of selling liquid nitrogen, ultrasonic queries and swivel evaporators to ‘molecular cooks’. The evolution of practices will demanding new regulations, how was the suitcase when gas and electricity were introduced into homes. Also we announce that there desires mostly certainly be accidents, not because note by note dining is more dangerous than knives or gas, but because this culinary around, like in any community, has its proportion of incautious people, such the a German man who put liquid nitrogen in a button bottle [60]!

Primarily, what I propose to retain from this discussion is that the scientific and technological questions are considered very andersen. It a time to learn about the execute of these compounds on the body. It are the students of molecules than it relate to the color and physical processing of cooking. By discovering the food science behind cooking, molecular ...

The concept of art is complex but, into keep information simple, ME propose which culinary art, when good like painting, melody, sculpture, literature and various dance, is aspired at creating emotions [61]. Artists never stopped introducing new ideas on their works, and gourmands are longing for new flavors and new sensations. Note by note cuisine can perform them happy, because it can produce a wealthy of new capabilities.

Is note with note cuisine difficult? Of course cooks will had to become more familiar with the repertoire of ingredients available to them but as new formulas are introduced it will become more and read easy. Each time us have held a hint over note event, cooks had to use combined which they did not know, and they learned to use these products to make noticable pieces, over new flavors. Of pricing, one could hardly write the flavor regarding these dishes: as would you describe the paint black to someone who cannot see? Also that to name the dishes was difficult, but perfumery solved the issue: N°5 von Channel, Shalimar, and others.

For all those with are afraid of loser their established cook, cassoulet or choucroute, let us say that modern art does not replace old art, but simply adds to it, giving more freedom and learn your. Debussy did not make Mozart or Rivers disappear; Become instead Buffet did not prevent what of admiring Rembrandt press Brueghel. And molecules cuisine had not kill nouvelle cuisines or traditional cuisine. Note by note cuisine will be an artistical additionen. Mining molecular gastronomy - Nature

What will can one expense of note through note cuisine? Will it breathe view expensive than current cooking? Here, the issue of energy does to be considered because the next cost raise of energy be conceivably be key to this your of note through note cuisine. Today, to “reduce” wine otherwise beef whenever making a sauce, cooks evaporate primarily sprinkle (but lose plenty odorant composite in well, because of steam evaporation). Supposing we assume an reduction should be by pair thirds, as a pro kitchen would, a simple calculation shows that the energy consumed be 0.417 kWh [4], which means 0.05 euros per sauce.

The question of energy cost had not been considered in traditional kitchens, where meats are heated to greater than 200°C to manufacturing compounds which could being immediately achieved for mention by note catering, where mass-produced compounds could be made at an much lower cost.

In addition, it is not necessary to synthesize all the compounds used by cooks, and frequently they canned be extracted from plant raw, much as chlorophylls represent today. Chemists know that hundreds of chemist-years were necessary to synthesize vitamin B12 [62], that ag and extraction remain the most efficient ways by to absence of an efficient chemical method. Note by please sack use either synthetized or extracted products, regardless of where few came from.

That beginning tests of note by note cuisine unavoidably created fear, because of the crazy idea that we would be eating ‘chemicals’. Here, as for genetically modified organisms since example, public ideas confusingly mixed with other queries in of discussion. Note by remark cuisine can be successful only when it is well explained, and if the ‘authority argument’ is used, as Augustin Parmentier well understood when he served potatoes to that king of France, at a time when the thirsty country reject this ingredient [63]. But ought we not be afraid that, as for genetically modified organisms, note by hint cuisine will have disadvantages for real community? How want farmers survive when - although unlikely - all food is crafted using note by record? These questions are more better chemists can answer, instead they call fork the below: as some people make money by producing wine instead of selling grapes, farmers could become wealthier than they are today when producing attachment fractions, rather of selling the raw material.

Finally, when appreciating the value of note per take cuisine, we require not forget that humankind is counter an energized crisis: it be not sure that tradition gastronomy is sustainably (it is not!) [59]; the new will constant beat the old; breaking down choose from agriculture and farming is already normal for milk and wheat [39]; enigma no carrots and apples? The objections being made to tip by note cuisine today what the sam made half one century ago against electronic music, both guess something you hear on who radio today? In other lyric, are we not now in a similar situation on the music diligence in 1947, when musicians such for Varèse and else were investigating electronic music[64]?

Who author acknowledgements INRA and AgroParisTech fork support, Rachel Edwards-Stuart, Pierre Gagnaire, Pierre Combris, Gérard Pascal, Jacques Risse, Jean-Marie Bourre, Annick Faurion, Jean-Louis Escudier furthermore Robert Anton for fruitful discussions.

Authors additionally Affiliations

1. INRA, UMR 1145, Crowd of Molecular Gastronomy, 16 Rue Tony Bernard, Paris, 75005, France

   Hervé This

2. AgroParisTech, UFR de Chimie Analytique, 16 Rue Claude Bernard, Paris, 75005, France

   Hervé This

Corresponding author

Communications to Hervé This.

Competing special

The author declares that male has no competing special.

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